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The trajectory of peasant movements in India reflects the broader historical, social, and political transformations of the subcontinent, from colonial rule to the post-colonial period. These movements were not uniform; they varied across regions, economic conditions, and social structures. The peasant struggles evolved through phases—agrarian uprisings during the colonial era in response to exploitative land revenue systems and oppressive landlords, to organized political movements with broader socio-economic agendas in the post-colonial phase. Their impact is evident not only in the transformation of agrarian relations but also in shaping Indian politics, contributing to social justice, and influencing state policies. During the colonial period, the introduction of new land revenue systems such as the Permanent Settlement in Bengal, Ryotwari in Madras and Bombay Presidencies, and Mahalwari in northern India created a structure where peasants were subjected to heavy taxation, lack of security of tenure, and exploitation by intermediaries. The British focus on maximizing revenue and commercializing agriculture often displaced traditional agrarian structures, leading to distress. Famines, indebtedness, and land alienation further aggravated the conditions of peasants. This provided fertile ground for agrarian resistance which initially took the form of sporadic uprisings and later became more organized. One of the earliest examples was the Indigo Revolt of 1859–60 in Bengal. Indigo cultivators resisted European planters who forced them into contracts to grow indigo at highly unremunerative prices. The peasants organized ____ __________ _____ _______ _______ _________ __________ _______.
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