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The Opium Wars, fought between China and Britain in the mid-19th century, have been interpreted from multiple perspectives, reflecting political, economic, and cultural dimensions. The traditional Chinese interpretation views the wars as a national humiliation and the starting point of the “Century of Humiliation.” According to this perspective, the wars were imperialist aggressions aimed at forcing China to accept the opium trade and opening its markets to foreign powers, undermining Chinese _______ ____ _____ ____ ______ __________ _____ __________.
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