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Internet Service Providers (ISPs) and online intermediaries play a central role in enabling communication, commerce, and data exchange in cyberspace. They provide access, hosting, caching, search, and platform services that allow users and businesses to operate online. Because they facilitate the transmission and storage of third-party content, legal systems have developed rules to define their liability for unlawful activities carried out through their networks. The concept of intermediary liability seeks to balance the need to promote innovation and free expression with the necessity of preventing harm such as copyright infringement, defamation, fraud, cybercrime, and dissemination of illegal material in e-commerce environments. An intermediary generally refers to any entity that provides services enabling the transmission, storage, or access of digital information on behalf of users. This includes internet access providers, web hosting companies, social media platforms, online marketplaces, payment gateways, and cloud service providers. Since these entities do not usually create the content themselves, the law often distinguishes between primary liability for content creators and secondary or conditional liability for intermediaries. The core question is whether intermediaries should be held responsible for user-generated content and under what circumstances they must act to prevent harm. One widely adopted legal principle is the concept of “safe harbour.” Safe harbour provisions protect intermediaries from liability for third-party content if they meet certain conditions. These conditions typically include acting as a passive conduit, not initiating or modifying the transmission, and promptly removing unlawful content upon receiving actual knowledge or a valid legal notice. Safe harbour encourages technological growth and e-commerce by ensuring that ____ ______ ______ ___ ______ _________ _______.
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