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The urban heat island effect is a phenomenon in which urban areas experience higher temperatures than their rural surroundings due to the combined influence of anthropogenic activities, land cover changes, and altered atmospheric conditions. The primary cause lies in the replacement of natural vegetation with impervious materials such as asphalt, concrete, and metal surfaces. These materials have low albedo and high heat storage capacity, which allows them to absorb solar radiation during the day and slowly release it at night, maintaining elevated temperatures. The dense concentration of buildings and infrastructure also restricts air movement, reducing the dissipation of heat and trapping warm air between structures. Moreover, urbanization leads to reduced evapotranspiration because of limited vegetation and soil exposure, eliminating a natural cooling mechanism present in rural landscapes. Waste heat from vehicles, industrial processes, and air-conditioning systems adds to the warming, while atmospheric pollutants such as greenhouse gases and aerosols increase heat retention by enhancing radiative forcing. Tall buildings, known as urban canyons, create complex patterns of reflection and absorption, intensifying local heat accumulation. The lack of shading from tree canopies further allows sunlight to directly strike pavements and roofs, exacerbating surface temperatures. Nighttime cooling is particularly inhibited in cities because heat stored in infrastructure is released slowly after sunset, causing persistent warmth and amplifying the daily thermal ___ _____ ___ _________ ____ __________ ____ ___.
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