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International relations as an academic discipline has developed through a variety of theoretical perspectives that aim to explain how states and other actors behave in the international system. These theories provide different lenses through which global politics can be understood, highlighting the dynamics of power, cooperation, conflict, and institutions. Theories of international relations are not only explanatory but also normative, as they suggest how states should act to achieve peace, security, or justice. Major schools of thought include realism, liberalism, constructivism, Marxism, critical theories, postcolonialism, feminism, and English School theory, among others. Each of these perspectives offers a unique interpretation of international relations and world history, shaped by particular historical contexts and intellectual traditions. Realism remains one of the oldest and most influential theories in international relations. Rooted in the writings of Thucydides, Machiavelli, and Hobbes, realism emphasizes the anarchic nature of the international system, where no central authority exists to enforce rules. According to realists, states are the primary actors, motivated by self-interest and the pursuit of power in order to survive. Classical realism highlights human nature as the source of conflict, while neorealism, associated with Kenneth Waltz, attributes conflict to the anarchic structure of the international system itself. States operate in a self-help environment where security dilemmas arise, and military power becomes a crucial tool for survival. From the realist perspective, international cooperation is fragile and temporary, as states ultimately prioritize their national interests. This framework has been used to explain both world wars, the Cold War rivalry, and ongoing geopolitical conflicts. Liberalism offers a contrasting perspective by emphasizing the possibility of cooperation and the role of institutions, trade, and democracy in mitigating conflict. Stemming from Enlightenment ideas of progress, liberalism argues that ____ __________ __________ ___ _______ _____ _______ _______ ________ ______.
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