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Gender has emerged as a central focus in anthropological studies over the past few decades. Initially, anthropology often overlooked or marginalized gender, conflating it with biological sex or treating women’s roles as secondary to men's. However, over time, feminist critiques and post-structuralist theories have reshaped the discipline, making gender a critical analytical category in understanding cultures, power relations, social structures, and human behavior. In anthropological inquiry, gender is now recognized not merely as a binary biological distinction but as a culturally constructed and historically contingent category that influences and is influenced by kinship, politics, economy, religion, and identity. Early anthropological studies, particularly those conducted during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, were predominantly androcentric. Scholars such as Edward Tylor, Bronislaw Malinowski, and A.R. Radcliffe-Brown often focused on male activities, assuming these to be representative of the entire society. This masculinist bias led to the systematic exclusion of women’s voices and experiences from ethnographic accounts. Women were often portrayed only in terms of their roles as wives, mothers, or ritual objects, thereby reducing their agency and overlooking their roles in social reproduction, decision-making, and resistance. The 1970s marked a significant shift with the advent of feminist anthropology, which challenged the discipline's male bias and advocated for the inclusion of women's perspectives. Pioneering scholars like Michelle Rosaldo and Sherry Ortner argued that the universal subordination of women was a cultural, not biological, phenomenon. Ortner’s influential essay "Is Female to Male as Nature is to Culture?" (1974) suggested that women are universally associated with nature and men with culture, leading to systemic inequality. However, subsequent anthropologists critiqued this framework for its essentialist tendencies and its lack of attention to intersectionality and cultural specificity. Anthropological studies began to treat gender as a social construct rather than a biological given. Margaret Mead's earlier work __________ _________ _________ ___ _______ __________ _____.
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