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The Harappan Civilization, also known as the Indus Valley Civilization, was one of the earliest urban cultures in the world, flourishing between approximately 2600 BCE and 1900 BCE. Spread over a vast area encompassing parts of modern-day Pakistan and northwest India, the civilization demonstrated remarkable material advancements in various fields. The material characteristics of the Harappan Civilization reveal a complex and well-organized society with advanced urban planning, architecture, craft production, trade networks, and technological skills. These characteristics also provide significant insights into the socio-economic, political, and cultural aspects of Harappan life. One of the most striking material features of the Harappan Civilization is its urban planning. Cities like Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Dholavira, Kalibangan, Lothal, and Rakhigarhi were meticulously planned. These cities were laid out in a grid pattern, with streets running perpendicular to each other, indicating a sophisticated understanding of spatial organization. The cities were generally divided into two parts: the Citadel and the Lower Town. The Citadel was built on a raised platform and probably served administrative and religious purposes, while the Lower Town housed residential and commercial buildings. Harappan architecture was largely utilitarian and standardized. Burnt bricks were the primary material used for constructing houses, drains, wells, and other structures. ___ _______ ____ ______ _______ ______ _____ _____ ________ ___ ___.
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