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The emergence of the Chinese bourgeoisie as a social force during the period between 1840 and 1949 was closely linked to both internal social transformations and external pressures imposed on China by Western imperialism and Japan. The Opium War of 1840 marked a turning point in Chinese history, forcing China to confront its economic and military weaknesses. The defeat exposed the inefficiency of the Qing administration and led to the signing of unequal treaties, opening Chinese ports to foreign trade and allowing Western powers to establish concessions within China. This process initiated the penetration of capitalist relations into Chinese society and created opportunities for a new class of commercial and industrial entrepreneurs to emerge. The Chinese bourgeoisie initially consisted mainly of merchants, financiers, and small-scale industrialists concentrated in urban centers such as Shanghai, Tianjin, and Guangzhou. These ______ ___ _________ ____ ________ _______.
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