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The emergence of the Chinese bourgeoisie as a social force in the period between 1840 and 1949 must be understood in the context of major political, economic, and social transformations triggered by foreign intrusion, internal reform, and revolutionary upheaval. The term "bourgeoisie" here refers primarily to the urban, capitalist middle class involved in commerce, banking, industry, and later, political reform. Their rise was neither linear nor dominant, as it was continually shaped and restrained by traditional structures, foreign imperialism, warlordism, and communist revolution. The roots of the Chinese bourgeoisie can be traced to the aftermath of the First Opium War (1839–1842), which ended with the Treaty of Nanking. This treaty and others like it opened several Chinese treaty ports to foreign trade and created the conditions for the growth of a native merchant class. Chinese intermediaries, known as compradors, worked with foreign firms and began to accumulate wealth and influence. Although heavily dependent on Western capital and trade networks, this comprador bourgeoisie became an early form of capitalist class in China. During the late Qing Dynasty, particularly after the Self-Strengthening Movement (1861–1895), there was a state-supported attempt to modernize the military and industrial sectors. _______ _______ ________ ________ ____ __________ _______.
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