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The political and social organization of Tamilakam during the Sangam Age presents one of the earliest and most developed regional civilizations in ancient South India. The term Tamilakam referred to the geographical region inhabited by the Tamil-speaking people, comprising present-day Tamil Nadu, Kerala, parts of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and northern Sri Lanka. The principal sources for understanding its political and social organization include Sangam literature such as *Purananuru*, *Akananuru*, *Pattinappalai*, *Pathitrupathu*, *Silappadikaram*, *Manimekalai*, archaeological findings, inscriptions, and accounts of foreign travelers. The political organization of Tamilakam was characterized by the rule of the three major dynasties known as the Muvendar—the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas. Besides these major kingdoms, numerous smaller chieftains known as Velirs exercised authority over local territories. Political authority was based primarily on military strength, economic prosperity, and personal leadership rather than on elaborate bureaucratic institutions. The Cheras ruled the western region with their capital at Vanji. They controlled the spice-producing areas and maintained active trade with the Roman world through ports such as Muziris. The Cholas governed the fertile Kaveri delta with capitals at Uraiyur and later Puhar (Kaveripattinam). Their prosperity rested on agriculture, irrigation, and maritime commerce. The Pandyas ruled the southern region from Madurai, which emerged as an important political and cultural center. Their wealth was enhanced by pearl fisheries and overseas trade. The king occupied the highest position in the political hierarchy. He was regarded as the protector of his people and was expected to ensure justice, prosperity, and security. Although kingship gradually became hereditary, the ruler's legitimacy depended greatly upon his military achievements, generosity, and ability to reward poets, warriors, and subjects. Sangam literature glorifies victorious kings through heroic poems that celebrated valor and generosity. Royal administration was comparatively simple. The king was assisted by ministers, military commanders, priests, envoys, spies, and revenue officials. Important state matters were discussed with advisers, though the king remained the supreme authority. Administrative functions included tax collection, maintenance of law and order, defense, irrigation management, and encouragement of trade. Local administration was ____ _______ ________ _______ ________ ________ _____ __________ _________.
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