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René Descartes, John Locke, and Baruch Spinoza each present distinctive conceptions of substance within the framework of Western modern philosophy, yet their approaches differ fundamentally in metaphysical assumptions and epistemological commitments. Descartes’ view of substance is grounded in his dualism, which sharply distinguishes between mind and body. For Descartes, substances are entities that exist independently and do not require any other entity to exist. He famously identifies two types of finite substances: res cogitans (thinking substance, mind) and res extensa (extended substance, matter), alongside the infinite substance, God. Descartes posits that the mind is essentially defined by thought and is immaterial, whereas matter is characterized by __________ ______ ____ ____ ______ ________ ____ ______ ___ __________ ________.
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