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Confucianism is a philosophical, ethical, and political doctrine that originated in ancient China, founded on the teachings of Confucius (Kong Fuzi or Kongzi, 551–479 BCE). Although its roots trace back to earlier times, Confucianism gained renewed prominence during the modern period, particularly in the context of the transformations experienced by China and, to a lesser extent, Japan between 1840 and 1949. At its core, Confucianism emphasizes the importance of moral cultivation, filial piety, respect for elders and superiors, loyalty to the state, and the pursuit of social harmony through proper behavior and ritual. The five cardinal relationships—ruler-subject, father-son, husband-wife, elder brother-younger brother, and friend-friend—form the structural basis of Confucian ethics, prescribing hierarchical yet reciprocal responsibilities. Education, self-cultivation, and virtue (ren) are central to the Confucian way of life, as is the idea of a well-ordered society governed by morally upright rulers. In the context of China from 1840 to 1949, ___ _______ ______ ___ _________ _______ _______ _______ ________.
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