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Nationalism in China between 1840 and 1949 developed as a powerful and complex response to both internal crises and external pressures. This period marked profound transformations in Chinese society, politics, and identity, as the country struggled to regain sovereignty and modernize in the face of imperialist encroachments and domestic upheaval. The roots of Chinese nationalism can be traced back to the Opium Wars (starting in 1839), which exposed China's military weakness and economic vulnerability to Western powers, particularly Britain. The humiliating defeat in the First Opium War (1839-1842) and the subsequent Treaty of Nanking, which forced China to cede Hong Kong and open several ports to foreign trade under unequal terms, created a widespread sense of national humiliation and urgency for reform. This early period marked the beginning of what Chinese intellectuals and officials later called the “Century of Humiliation,” which became a rallying point for nationalist sentiment. The Qing dynasty’s inability to effectively defend China’s sovereignty and modernize its institutions further fueled nationalist ideas. The failure of the Self-Strengthening Movement (1861-1895), which aimed to adopt Western technology and military techniques while maintaining Confucian values, showed ______ ______ ________ _______ __________ __________ ______.
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