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Early modern labour, roughly spanning from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries, was embedded in agrarian economies, guild-based production, and emerging commercial capitalism. Around 1500, most workers were engaged in agriculture, tied to feudal or semi-feudal systems in which labour obligations were often defined by custom, status, and land tenure rather than formal contracts. Serfdom in parts of Europe bound peasants to landlords, while in other regions tenant farming and sharecropping prevailed. Labour was largely unfree or semi-free, and remuneration was often in kind rather than wages. Household-based production was central, with families acting as units of both production and consumption. The early modern period also witnessed the gradual erosion of feudal relations and the expansion of wage labour. Population growth, commercialization of agriculture, and the enclosure movement displaced many peasants from common lands, creating a growing class of landless labourers. This transformation contributed to the emergence of labour ________ __________ _________ ___ ________ _______ ____ ___ ______ ____ ___.
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