What is the effective life of a photovoltaic module? State the factors on which voltage output of a PV module depends.

The effective life of a photovoltaic (PV) module typically ranges between 25 to 30 years, although some high-quality modules may last longer. Over time, the module’s efficiency tends to decrease gradually, with the output power declining at a rate of approximately 0.5% to 1% per year. This decrease in efficiency is a result of various environmental and operational factors. After the effective life, the module may still generate power, but its output will be considerably lower than when it was new. However, PV modules usually come with a performance warranty that guarantees a certain level of power output (usually 80% of the initial rated power) for 25 years.

The factors influencing the voltage output of a PV module are numerous and can be broadly categorized into environmental, operational, and design factors:

1. Solar Irradiance: The amount of sunlight or solar radiation falling on the PV module is a critical factor. Solar irradiance directly impacts the voltage output, as higher _________ _________ __________ ______ ______ ___ ______ _________ _________.
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