The party systems at both levels - national and state moved towards a fragmentation from the late 1980s or, more particularly, from the 1990s. What are the features of these fragmentary systems?

The political landscape in India has evolved significantly since its independence, particularly from the late 1980s and more prominently during the 1990s, when party systems at both the national and state levels began to experience increasing fragmentation. This transformation was a result of multiple interrelated factors, including the decline of the dominance of national parties, the rise of regional parties, and changing socio-political dynamics across the country. These fragmentary party systems have shaped Indian politics in complex ways, and the features of these systems can be observed through several dimensions.

### 1. Emergence and Rise of Regional Parties

The most striking feature of the fragmenting party system in India is the emergence and rise of regional political parties. Prior to the 1980s, the Indian National Congress (INC) was the dominant force at both the national and state levels, and its hegemony was largely unchallenged. However, starting in the 1980s, regional parties in states like West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Maharashtra began to gain prominence, offering an alternative to the centralizing tendencies of national parties. 

These regional parties focused on specific local issues, such as language, culture, regional autonomy, and the protection of regional identity. For instance, the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) in Tamil Nadu, the Trinamool Congress (TMC) in West Bengal, and the Samajwadi Party (SP) in Uttar Pradesh catered to local aspirations and became important political players. These regional parties not only contested elections in their respective states but also began to influence national politics, challenging the dominance of national parties.

### 2. Coalition Politics

The fragmentation of the party system also gave rise to coalition politics, particularly in the 1990s. As no single party was able to secure a clear majority at the national level, coalition governments became the norm. The post-1989 era witnessed a shift from single-party dominance to a multi-party system, where coalitions of __________ _________ _______ ___ _____ ______ ___ ________ __________.
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