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ATP is produced in cells through several biochemical processes linked to membrane systems and energy metabolism. The major processes include substrate-level phosphorylation, oxidative phosphorylation, and photophosphorylation, along with supporting metabolic pathways like glycolysis and the citric acid cycle. Substrate-level phosphorylation is a direct method of ATP formation where a phosphate group is transferred from a high-energy substrate molecule to ADP. This occurs mainly during glycolysis and certain steps of ______ ________ _____ _____ _________.
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