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The absorption spectra of transition and inner transition elements in the UV-Visible region arise mainly from electronic transitions between different energy levels of the partially filled d- and f-orbitals. UV-Visible spectroscopy is therefore particularly useful for studying the electronic structure, oxidation states, coordination compounds and magnetic properties of these elements. The nature of the spectra of transition elements differs considerably from that of inner transition elements because d–d transitions and f–f transitions are governed by different electronic environments and selection rules. Transition elements are characterized by the presence of partially filled d-orbitals in their atoms or in at least one of their common oxidation states. When a transition-metal ion is placed in a ligand environment, the five d-orbitals no longer remain degenerate. In a free ion, all five d-orbitals have approximately the same energy, but interaction with surrounding ligands produces crystal-field or ligand-field splitting. For example, in an octahedral complex, the five d-orbitals split into two groups, namely the lower-energy t₂g set and the higher-energy eᵍ set. In a tetrahedral complex, the pattern is reversed. The energy difference between these sets often corresponds to radiation in the visible region. When a transition-metal ion absorbs visible or ultraviolet radiation, an electron may be promoted from a lower-energy d-level to a higher-energy d-level. Such transitions are called d–d transitions. The wavelength of maximum absorption depends upon the magnitude of crystal-field splitting, usually represented by Δ. Since Δ depends on the nature of the metal ion, its oxidation _______ _____ _______ ________ _____ _________ _____ ___ ______ ___ ________ ___.
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