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Carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄) is a classic hepatotoxicant whose toxicity is primarily mediated through its metabolism in the liver. Upon entering hepatocytes, CCl₄ undergoes bioactivation by the cytochrome P450 enzyme system, particularly CYP2E1, to form the highly reactive trichloromethyl free radical (CCl₃•). This radical can react with cellular macromolecules including lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, initiating lipid peroxidation of the endoplasmic reticulum and other membranous structures. Lipid peroxidation disrupts membrane integrity, leading to ___ ___ _____ _________ ____.
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