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Anumāna, or inference, occupies a central position in Indian epistemology as a recognized pramāṇa, or means of valid knowledge, particularly in the Nyāya system of philosophy. It is a cognitive process by which knowledge of an object or fact is obtained on the basis of its relationship with another known object or fact. In essence, anumāna is reasoning that moves from a known premise (hetu or reason) to an unknown conclusion (sādhya). Unlike perception (pratyakṣa), which provides direct knowledge of objects through the senses, inference is indirect, relying on a logical connection between what is observed and what is to be known. The classical Nyāya formulation identifies three components in the inferential process: pratijñā (proposition or statement to be proved), hetu (reason or middle term), and drṣṭānta (example) that illustrates the universal concomitance (vyāpti) between the hetu and the sādhya. For instance, observing smoke on a hill (hetu) leads to the inference of fire (sādhya) because of the invariable concomitance between smoke and __________ _____ _____ _____ _________ ___ _____ __________.
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