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The integument of primitive fishes is simple in organization yet functionally efficient, reflecting their early evolutionary position among vertebrates. It consists of the skin along with its derivatives and plays important roles in protection, respiration, osmoregulation, and sensory reception. In primitive fishes such as cyclostomes and early cartilaginous fishes, the integument shows characteristic features that distinguish it from that of higher fishes. The skin is typically divided into two main layers: the outer epidermis and the inner dermis. The epidermis is of ectodermal origin and is made up of several layers of living cells. Unlike higher vertebrates, the epidermis of primitive fishes is not __________ _______ _________ _______ ________ _______.
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