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Surgical trauma produces a complex physiological stress response involving neuroendocrine, metabolic, hematological, and immunological changes aimed at maintaining homeostasis. The response begins with tissue injury, which activates nociceptors and stimulates the hypothalamus through afferent nerve pathways. This leads to activation of the _________ _______ ____ _________ __________ _______ ____ ____ ___ _______ ___ _________.
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