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Modernity has fundamentally transformed the relationship between human society and nature. While pre-modern societies largely viewed nature as a sacred, living, and limiting force, modernity redefined it as an object of scientific inquiry, economic exploitation, and technological control. Environmental sociology critically examines this transformation by exploring how industrialization, capitalism, urbanization, scientific rationality, and technological advancement have altered both ecological systems and social perceptions of nature. The Enlightenment laid the intellectual foundation of modernity by promoting reason, science, and human mastery over the natural world. Thinkers such as Francis Bacon argued that scientific knowledge should enable humans to dominate nature for material progress. This anthropocentric worldview encouraged the belief that natural resources existed primarily for human use and economic development. Industrialization intensified this relationship by converting forests, rivers, minerals, and land into commodities for production. Rapid industrial growth generated unprecedented economic prosperity but also caused pollution, deforestation, biodiversity loss, and climate change. Environmental sociologists argue that these ecological crises are not accidental but are deeply embedded within the __________ ______ __________ _________ ___.
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