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During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, transport systems played a crucial role in shaping economic growth, political expansion, military organization, and cultural exchange. Both land transport and sea transport were indispensable for connecting regions, facilitating commerce, and supporting empires. However, they differed significantly in terms of speed, cost, carrying capacity, technological development, risks, and geographical limitations. The expansion of global trade, the rise of maritime empires, and improvements in overland communication during this period transformed the medieval transport networks into more integrated systems that linked continents and civilizations. Land transport during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries continued to rely primarily on human labor and animal power. Horses, oxen, camels, mules, donkeys, and elephants were the principal means of carrying goods and passengers. The choice of transport animals varied according to geographical conditions. Camels dominated the deserts of North Africa, Arabia, and Central Asia because of their endurance and ability to travel long distances without water. Horses were widely used in Europe and parts of Asia for riding, military purposes, and pulling carts. Oxen were preferred for heavy loads due to their strength, while elephants served military and transport functions in South and Southeast Asia. Road infrastructure remained poorly developed in most parts of the world. Many roads were unpaved, narrow, and difficult to use during rainy seasons. Mountain passes, forests, deserts, and rivers presented major obstacles to overland travel. In Europe, remnants of Roman roads still existed and provided relatively better communication in some regions, although many had deteriorated. In the Mughal Empire, important highways such as the Grand Trunk Road facilitated trade and administration. The Ottoman Empire maintained caravan routes linking Asia, Europe, and Africa, while China's Ming dynasty preserved extensive road systems connecting major administrative centers. Caravans formed the backbone of long-distance land transport. Merchants traveled together in organized groups for ________ ___ _____ ________ ___.
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