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Colonial cities in India can indeed be understood as divided cities, both spatially and socially, reflecting the profound impact of British colonial policies and urban planning on the Indian urban landscape. The division in these cities was not merely physical but also symbolic, representing the hierarchies of power, race, and class imposed by the colonial state. Colonial urbanization in India was characterized by the juxtaposition of European-style settlements and indigenous settlements, often referred to as the ‘White Towns’ and ‘Black Towns,’ respectively, which epitomized the social and spatial segregation prevalent during the period. One of the most illustrative examples of this urban division is the city of Calcutta (now Kolkata), which served as the capital of British India until 1911. Calcutta was deliberately planned to separate the European settlers from the native population. The Europeans occupied the so-called White Town, which included administrative buildings, wide boulevards, and residential quarters with planned sanitation and infrastructure, reflecting a modern urban vision in line with British ideals. In contrast, the Black Town accommodated the indigenous population, including traders, artisans, and laborers, often in overcrowded, poorly serviced areas. This spatial segregation was reinforced by legal and administrative measures, ensuring that the Indian population had limited access to certain urban spaces reserved for _______ _______ ___ __________ ____ ___ _______ _______.
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