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To calculate the equilibrium concentration of vacancies in a copper crystal, we use the Arrhenius-type equation for vacancy concentration: $$ n_v = N \exp\left(-\frac{Q_v}{RT}\right) $$ where $n_v$ is the number of vacancies, $N$ is the total number of atomic sites, $Q_v$ is the enthalpy of vacancy formation per _______ _________ __________ ______ ____ _______.
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