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Human biological variation refers to the observable and measurable differences among individuals and populations of Homo sapiens, arising from genetic, environmental, and socio-cultural influences. These variations are expressed in physical traits, physiological characteristics, biochemical properties, and genetic compositions. Although all humans belong to a single species with a common origin, populations differ in certain features due to adaptation, mutation, natural selection, genetic drift, gene flow, and environmental pressures. Human biological variation is continuous and clinal rather than discrete, meaning traits change gradually over geographical space rather than forming sharply defined categories. The concept rejects rigid racial classifications and instead emphasizes population-level differences shaped by evolutionary and ecological factors. Anthropometric markers are among the most visible indicators of human biological variation. Anthropometry involves the systematic measurement of the human body, including stature, body weight, skinfold thickness, cranial dimensions, limb proportions, nasal index, and _______ _____ ___ ________ ________ ______ _________ ______ ____ _________.
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