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Perception, in philosophical terms, refers to the direct apprehension of objects through the senses, resulting in knowledge that is immediate and non-inferential. It is considered one of the primary means of obtaining valid knowledge or *pramāṇa* in Indian philosophy. Perception allows a subject to experience objects without relying on reasoning, testimony, or inference. The Nyaya school, one of the classical systems of Indian philosophy, provides a detailed and systematic account of perception, emphasizing its role as the foundation of knowledge. The Nyaya school, founded by Akṣapāda Gautama, views perception (*pratyakṣa*) as a fundamental source of knowledge. According to Nyaya, perception is the cognition that arises when the senses come into contact with objects in the world, resulting in direct awareness. Nyaya distinguishes between two primary types of perception: *indeterminate* (*nirvikalpa* or *sāmānyalakṣaṇa*) and *determinate* (*savikalpa* or *viśeṣalakṣaṇa*). Indeterminate perception occurs when the mind perceives an object without recognizing its specific features or attributes. For instance, seeing a form in dim light without being able to identify whether it is a tree or a human would be considered indeterminate perception. It is the raw sensory experience before the mind classifies or interprets it. Determinate perception, on the ______ _______ ____ _________ __________.
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