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Sensors and actuators are foundational components of smart technologies, particularly in the context of the Internet of Things (IoT). They act as the interface between the physical world and digital systems, enabling real-time monitoring, control, and automation in smart environments. In smart cities, their role is critical for infrastructure management, public safety, environmental monitoring, and efficient delivery of services. A sensor is a device that detects changes in the environment and converts them into signals that can be interpreted by electronic systems. These changes could be in temperature, pressure, light, motion, humidity, or other physical phenomena. Sensors gather data from the real world and feed it to control systems or decision-making algorithms. A smart sensor typically incorporates a transducer, microprocessor, communication interface, and software to pre-process the data and transmit it over networks. An actuator, on the other hand, is a device that receives control signals and performs a physical action in response. Actuators convert electrical signals into mechanical movement. They may be used to open valves, move robotic arms, switch on lights, or control HVAC systems. In a smart environment, actuators allow systems to respond dynamically to sensor inputs and programmed logic. ### Classification of Sensors Sensors can be classified based on various criteria such as input stimulus, output signal type, and contact requirement. 1. Based on the physical parameter measured: * Temperature sensors – e.g., thermocouples, thermistors, RTDs * Pressure sensors – e.g., piezoelectric sensors, strain gauges * Proximity sensors – e.g., inductive, capacitive, ultrasonic * Light sensors – e.g., ___ _____ _____ ______ ______ _________.
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