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Environmental sociology emerged as a distinct field within sociology in response to growing awareness that environmental problems are deeply social in origin, distribution, and consequence. While classical sociologists such as Karl Marx, Max Weber, and Émile Durkheim did not explicitly establish a separate environmental sociology, their works contained important insights about the relationship between society, economy, and nature. Marx’s analysis of capitalism highlighted the exploitative relationship between human labor and natural resources, later conceptualized as the “metabolic rift” between society and nature. Weber examined rationalization and bureaucracy, processes that later became central to understanding environmentally destructive industrial systems, while Durkheim emphasized the social foundations of knowledge and morality, ideas relevant to collective responses to environmental crises. These foundational ideas laid the intellectual groundwork for the later formal development of environmental sociology. The emergence of environmental sociology as a recognizable sub-discipline can be traced to the social and political transformations of the mid-twentieth century, particularly during the 1960s and 1970s. Rapid industrialization, urbanization, population growth, and technological expansion after the Second World War led to unprecedented environmental degradation. Issues such as air and water pollution, deforestation, pesticide use, nuclear hazards, and loss of biodiversity began to attract public attention. Influential works like Rachel ___ ____ ___ _____ _______ ____ ___ ____ _____ _______.
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