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René Descartes, in his quest for absolute certainty, undertakes a methodical approach to prove the existence of the external world, a central concern in modern Western philosophy. His argument is rooted in skepticism and his famous methodological doubt, where he systematically questions all beliefs that could possibly be false. Descartes begins by doubting the reliability of sense perception, acknowledging that our senses sometimes deceive us. For instance, objects at a distance appear smaller than they are, or optical illusions mislead our perception. He reasons that if our senses can deceive us even occasionally, they cannot be wholly trusted as a foundation for knowledge. This radical skepticism leads him to question the very existence of the physical world. Despite this doubt, Descartes discovers an indubitable truth through introspection: “Cogito, ergo sum” or “I think, therefore I am.” This insight establishes the existence of the self as a thinking substance, known as *res cogitans*. However, recognizing one’s own existence does not immediately guarantee the reality of the external world. The next step in his argument involves distinguishing between _____ _____ ________ ___ ________ _____ _______ _________ ___ __________ _________.
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