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Medieval cities of the Indian subcontinent have attracted sustained attention from historians, archaeologists, geographers, and urban sociologists because they represent a significant phase in the evolution of urbanism between the decline of many early historic cities and the emergence of colonial urban centres. Earlier scholarship often portrayed the medieval period as one of urban decay, political instability, and economic stagnation, assuming that the decline of ancient cities was followed by limited urban growth. However, subsequent research, supported by archaeological discoveries, epigraphic evidence, literary texts, travel accounts, and regional studies, has fundamentally revised this view. Scholars now regard medieval cities as dynamic centres of political authority, economic production, cultural exchange, religious activities, and technological innovation, reflecting both continuity and transformation in the urban history of the subcontinent. One of the earliest debates among scholars concerns the continuity of urbanization. Historians such as D.D. Kosambi acknowledged that many ancient urban centres declined after the Gupta period due to changes in long-distance trade and political structures. However, R.S. Sharma's theory of "Indian feudalism" argued that land grants, ruralization, and reduced monetization weakened urban centres between the sixth and tenth centuries. According to Sharma, economic decentralization limited commercial activity and contributed to urban decline. This interpretation has been challenged by several historians, including B.D. Chattopadhyaya, Hermann Kulke, Ranabir Chakravarti, and Rila Mukherjee. They argue that while certain ancient cities declined, numerous new urban centres emerged under changing political and economic conditions. These scholars emphasize regional variations rather than a uniform pattern of decline. Urbanization continued through temple towns, administrative capitals, pilgrimage centres, fortified settlements, and commercial ports, demonstrating adaptability rather than collapse. Scholars view medieval cities as products of state formation. Political capitals such as Delhi, Agra, Fatehpur Sikri, Daulatabad, Vijayanagara, Bidar, Gulbarga, and Jaunpur emerged __________ ____ ________ ___ _______ _________ ____ ________ ________ _______ _____.
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