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The principle of individual criminal responsibility is a cornerstone of International Humanitarian Law (IHL), ensuring that individuals, regardless of rank or position, can be held accountable for serious violations committed during armed conflicts. Under IHL, responsibility is personal, meaning that it cannot be transferred to a state, organization, or commander. This principle emerged prominently after World War II during the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials, which established that individuals could not escape liability by claiming they were following orders or acting on behalf of a state. The application of this principle under IHL emphasizes _________ ________ ______ _________ _________ ______.
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