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The emergence of the Chinese bourgeoisie as a social force in the period between 1840 and 1949 was closely intertwined with China’s encounter with modernity, foreign intrusion, and internal reformist movements. The Opium Wars of 1839–1842 and 1856–1860 had a profound impact on Chinese society, exposing the weaknesses of the Qing dynasty and forcing China to open up to foreign trade and influence. The resulting “treaty ports” and the influx of Western capital created conditions conducive to the growth of a commercial and industrial class that could be identified as the early bourgeoisie. This class was primarily composed of merchants, industrialists, and entrepreneurs who were beginning ______ _________ __________ ___ ____ _____ ___ ________.
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