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Rural migration and underemployment have profound implications for urban poverty in the Indian context, reflecting the interconnectedness between rural distress and urban challenges. Migration from rural to urban areas has been a longstanding feature of India’s socio-economic landscape, driven largely by agricultural stagnation, low wages, lack of employment opportunities, and inadequate access to basic amenities in villages. As rural households face diminishing returns from agriculture due to fragmented landholdings, unpredictable monsoons, and rising input costs, migration to cities becomes a survival strategy. This influx of people seeking livelihoods exerts intense pressure on urban economies, infrastructure, and social services, often translating into the proliferation of poverty in urban spaces. One of the most significant impacts of rural migration on urban poverty is the expansion of informal employment. Migrants usually lack the skills, social networks, and educational qualifications required for secure and well-paying jobs in cities. They are absorbed into the unorganized sector as construction workers, street vendors, domestic helpers, rickshaw pullers, or daily-wage labourers. These jobs are characterized by low and uncertain wages, absence of social security, and hazardous working conditions. Underemployment, wherein individuals are forced to work fewer hours or accept jobs below their skill levels, compounds their economic vulnerability. As a result, many _______ _________ _______ ____ ______.
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