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The OSI model and the TCP/IP model are fundamental frameworks used to understand how data communication occurs over networks in cyberspace technology. Both models describe the process of transmitting data from one device to another, but they differ in structure, design philosophy, and practical implementation. These differences have important implications not only for technical networking but also for broader social issues such as cybersecurity, digital communication, privacy, and global connectivity. The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization as a conceptual framework to standardize network communication. It consists of seven layers: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, and Application. Each layer has a specific function. The Physical layer deals with hardware transmission of raw bits, while the Data Link layer ensures error-free transfer between adjacent nodes. ______ ______ __________ _____ ______ __________ ________ ________ _________ ____ ______.
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