Discuss how defects in protein folding lead to diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and prion disorders.

Describe the principles of X-ray diffraction and NMR spectroscopy used in protein structure determination.

Explain how Ramachandran plots are used to predict and validate protein secondary structure.

Describe the basic principle of mass spectrometric analysis of proteins.

Describe how overlapping peptides are generated and used to determine the complete amino acid sequence of a protein.

Explain the principle of Edman degradation for protein sequencing.

Explain how SDS-PAGE, isoelectric focusing, and 2-D electrophoresis can be used to analyze complex protein mixtures.

Describe methods used for determining protein purity and molecular weight.

 Design a purification strategy using chromatographic techniques to isolate an enzyme from a crude protein extract.

Describe the principles of ion-exchange, gel filtration, and affinity chromatography.

Describe how solvent fractionation and lyophilization are used to concentrate and stabilize proteins during purification.

Explain the principle of ammonium sulphate fractionation and dialysis in protein purification.

Compare different protein extraction methods and justify the choice of a suitable technique for isolating a membrane-bound protein.

Describe the principles involved in solubilization and extraction of proteins from cellular sources.

Explain how the diversity of protein structure (multimeric, conjugated, and metalloproteins) contributes to their wide range of biological functions.

Classify amino acids based on the nature of their side chains and describe the properties of hydrophobic, polar, and charged amino acids.

Explain the mechanism of RNA interference and discuss its applications in gene silencing and therapeutics.

 Differentiate between euchromatin and heterochromatin and explain chromatin remodeling.

Explain how coordinated regulation of ribosomal protein synthesis is achieved in prokaryotes.

Explain the principles of positive and negative regulation of gene expression with reference to operons.